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Global Recognition and Domestic Containment: Culinary Soft Power in Japan

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Feeding Japan

Abstract

Cultural practices are subject to constant change, hybridization, indigenization, and forces of re-territorialization, which is an attempt to re-confirm the link to a locality. Taking Japan as an example, this chapter analyses the efforts of a national government to engage in the process of re-territorialization on two levels, the global and the domestic level. Globally, the Japanese government makes use of culinary soft power and internationally recognized institutions such as the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to gain recognition for a pristine national haute cuisine. Domestically, the Japanese government aims to contain the realities of culinary globalization through a state-led food education campaign, which emphasizes the responsibility of the individual for a healthy body and good eating. This two-fold approach towards countering globalization involves different representations of Japanese food: whereas an elaborate cuisine represents a form of culinary soft power globally, a mundane culinary style focuses on the consumption of rice and locally produced food.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Tomlinson, Globalization and Culture.

  2. 2.

    Sakamoto and Allen observe as follows: ‘As the de-territorialization of culture progresses with globalization, dislocating cultural artifacts from their place of “origin” and reinserting them into a new location and context, the nation-state and national subject are attempting to re-establish their claims of ownership of culture.’ Sakamoto and Allen, ‘There’s Something Fishy About that Sushi’, 116.

  3. 3.

    Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity, 21.

  4. 4.

    Tomlinson, Globalization and Culture.

  5. 5.

    Nützenadel and Trentmann, Food and Globalization; Cwiertka, Modern Japanese Cuisine, Rath and Assmann, Japanese Foodways. Past and Present; Farrer, Globalization, Food and Social Identities in the Asia Pacific Region; ibid., ‘Introduction: Traveling Cuisines in and out of Asia’; Watson, Golden Arches East. McDonald’s in East Asia.

  6. 6.

    Farrer, ‘Introduction: Traveling Cuisines in and out of Asia’; Bestor, ‘How Sushi Went Global’.

  7. 7.

    Cwiertka, Modern Japanese Cuisine; Sternsdorff-Cisterna, ‘Food and Place’.

  8. 8.

    Billig, Banal Nationalism.

  9. 9.

    Ferguson Parkhurst, ‘Culinary Nationalism’; Ferguson Parkhurst, ‘A Cultural Field in the Making’.

  10. 10.

    DeSoucey, ‘Gastronationalism’.

  11. 11.

    Ibid.

  12. 12.

    Farrer, ‘Introduction: Traveling Cuisines in and out of Asia’.

  13. 13.

    Ferguson Parkhurst, ‘A Cultural Field in the Making’, 603.

  14. 14.

    Ibid., 624.

  15. 15.

    Akagawa, ‘Intangible Heritage and Embodiment’, 73.

  16. 16.

    Kurin, ‘Safeguarding Intangible Cultural Heritage’, 47; Suzuki, ‘The Buddha of Kamakura’.

  17. 17.

    Akagawa, ‘Intangible Heritage and Embodiment’, 74.

  18. 18.

    Haghirian, ‘The Historical Development of Japanese Consumerism’, 5.

  19. 19.

    Kurin, ‘Safeguarding Intangible Cultural Heritage’, 47; Akagawa, ‘Intangible Heritage and Embodiment’, 73.

  20. 20.

    Akagawa, ‘Intangible Heritage and Embodiment’, 77.

  21. 21.

    Cameron, ‘UNESCO and Cultural Heritage: Unexpected Consequences’, 324.

  22. 22.

    UNESCO, ‘International Convention’; Kirschenblatt-Gimblett, ‘Intangible Heritage as Metacultural Production’, 61.

  23. 23.

    Farrer, ‘Introduction: Traveling Cuisines in and out of Asia’, 10.

  24. 24.

    UNESCO, ‘What is Intangible Heritage?’; Kurin, ‘Safeguarding Intangible Cultural Heritage’, 10.

  25. 25.

    Harada, Washoku to wa nani ka, 11.

  26. 26.

    Sakamoto and Allen, ‘There’s Something Fishy About that Sushi’, 110.

  27. 27.

    Shoku bunka kenkyū suishin kondankai, ‘Nihon shoku-bunka no suishin’, 9.

  28. 28.

    Sakamoto and Allen, ‘There’s Something Fishy About that Sushi’, 110; Farrer, ‘Introduction: Traveling Cuisines in and out of Asia’, 11.

  29. 29.

    Sanchanta, ‘Japan’s “Sushi Police” Are on a Roll’.

  30. 30.

    Sakamoto and Allen, ‘There’s Something Fishy About that Sushi’, 112; Farrer, ‘Introduction: Traveling Cuisines in and out of Asia’, 11; Organization to Promote Japanese Restaurants Abroad (JRO) [Nihonshoku resutoran kaigai fukyū suishin kikō], http://jronet.org.e.rl.hp.transer.com/restaurant/.

  31. 31.

    I am grateful to Fukutomi Satomi for drawing my attention to the scholarly debate on authenticity. Authenticity has been discussed from the perspectives of sociology (MacCannell, ‘Staged Authenticity; Reisinger and Steiner ‘Reconceptualizing Object Authenticity’; Lu and Fine, ‘The Presentation of Ethnic Authenticity’, and Molz, ‘Tasting an Imagined Thailand’), in heritage and museum studies (Cameron, ‘UNESCO and Cultural Heritage: Unexpected Consequences’), and more recently in consumer theory (Zukin, ‘Consuming Authenticity’; Pratt, ‘Food Values. The Local and the Authentic’).

  32. 32.

    Pratt, ‘Food Values. The Local and the Authentic’, 293.

  33. 33.

    Ibid., 294.

  34. 34.

    Reisinger and Steiner, ‘Reconceptualizing Object Authenticity’, 69.

  35. 35.

    Organization to Promote Japanese Restaurants Abroad (JRO) [Nihonshoku resutoran kaigai fukyū suishin kikō], http://jronet.org.e.rl.hp.transer.com/restaurant/.

  36. 36.

    Reisinger and Steiner, ‘Reconceptualizing Object Authenticity’, 68. MacCannell describes the tourists of modernity as ‘motivated by a desire to see life as it is really lived, even to get in with the natives, and, at the same time, they are deprecated for always failing to achieve these goals’. (MacCannell, ‘Staged Authenticity’, 592). In this context, ‘[t]he term “tourist” is increasingly used as a derisive label for someone who seems content with his obviously inauthentic experiences.’ MacCannell, ‘Staged Authenticity’, 592.

  37. 37.

    Reisinger and Steiner, ‘Reconceptualizing Object Authenticity’, 71. See also Beer, ‘Authenticity and Food Experience’, 158.

  38. 38.

    Beer, ‘Authenticity and Food Experience’, 161.

  39. 39.

    Reisinger and Steiner, ‘Reconceptualizing Object Authenticity’, 72.

  40. 40.

    Ibid., ‘Reconceptualizing Object Authenticity’, 67; Beer, ‘Authenticity and Food Experience’, 158.

  41. 41.

    Another approach locates authenticity firmly in consumer theory as a concept, which is defined against mass culture and suggests a romantic tradition, which opposes modernity (Pratt, ‘Food Values. The Local and the Authentic’, 293). In his study on alternative food movements and authenticity, Pratt argues that alternative food movements seek to reconnect production and consumption which takes place in ‘a kind of pre-set discursive field, that of the natural, the organic, the local, the rooted, the distinctive, the authentic, this field being precisely that of romantic tradition’ (Pratt, ‘Food Values. The Local and the Authentic’, 287). Here, local food is being equated with authentic food in opposition to the artificial, adulterated, and mass-produced food of modernity. Sharon Zukin defines authenticity as ‘consumption spaces outside the standardized realm of mass consumption’ (Zukin, ‘Consuming Authenticity’, 735–736).

  42. 42.

    Iwasa, ‘Ishizuka Sagen’, 20; Iwasa, ‘Shokuiku no so’, 46; Kojima, ‘Responsibility or Right to Eat Well?’, 49.

  43. 43.

    Maclachlan, ‘Global Trends vs. Local Traditions’, 250.

  44. 44.

    MHLW, ‘Heisei 25 nen kokumin kenkō chōsa kekka no gaiyō’. Obesity is defined differently in Japan than in the United States or in Europe. The body mass index (BMI), a person’s weight in kilograms (kg)/height in metres squared, is also used in Japan as a standard measuring device, but according to the Japan Dietetic Association (JDA) [Nihon Eiyōshikai], a person with a BMI between 25 and 30 who would be considered overweight in ‘Western’ countries, is considered obese in Japan. This rigid definition of obesity explains the higher rates of obese people in Japan. The JDA [Nihon Eiyōshikai], 9. http://www.dietitian.or.jp/assets/data/learn/marterial/vol4-No1.pdf.

  45. 45.

    MHLW, ‘Heisei 25 nen tokusei kenkō shinsa – tokutei hoken shidō no jisshi jōkyō’.

  46. 46.

    MAFF, ‘Shokuji baransu gaido ni tsuite’.

  47. 47.

    Distribution System Research Centre.

  48. 48.

    Tanaka and Miyoshi, ‘School Lunch Program for Health Promotion Among Children in Japan’, 156.

  49. 49.

    Guthman and DuPuis, ‘Embodying Neoliberalism’, 443.

  50. 50.

    Kimura, ‘Nationalism, Patriarchy, and Moralism’, 205.

  51. 51.

    The term nyūgō jūgō derives from the proverb ‘gō ni iritewa, gō ni shitagae’, which can be translated as: ‘When in Rome, do as the Romans do’. However, in using this term, Ishizuka Sagen referred to the health benefits of eating locally.

  52. 52.

    Iwasa, ‘Ishizuka Sagen’, 22.

  53. 53.

    MAFF, ‘Heisei 26nen (gaisan-chi)’.

  54. 54.

    Assmann, ‘Food Action Nippon and Slow Food Japan’; see also chapters by Farina and O’Shea in this volume.

  55. 55.

    Elms, ‘The Trans-Pacific Partnership Trade Negotiations’; see also chapters by Reiher and O’Shea in this volume.

  56. 56.

    Yamashita, ‘Ensuring Japan’s Food Security Through Free Trade Not Tariffs’.

  57. 57.

    Rath, ‘Rural Japan and Agriculture’, 481.

  58. 58.

    Cabinet Office, Shokuiku Hakusho, 128.

  59. 59.

    Cabinet Office, Shokuiku Hakusho, 3.

  60. 60.

    The food self-sufficiency rate is defined as the ratio of daily per capita caloric supply from domestically produced food to per capita daily caloric supply from food.

  61. 61.

    Food Action Nippon Website. http://syokuryo.jp/fan/.

  62. 62.

    Assmann, ‘Food Action Nippon and Slow Food Japan’.

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Assmann, S. (2017). Global Recognition and Domestic Containment: Culinary Soft Power in Japan. In: Niehaus, A., Walravens, T. (eds) Feeding Japan. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-50553-4_5

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