Abstract
Social media have become primary forms of social communication and means to maintain social connections among young adult women. Although social connectedness generally has a positive impact on psychological well-being, frequent social media use has been associated with poorer psychological well-being. Individual differences may be due to whether women derive their self-worth from feedback on social media. The associations between reasons for social media use, whether self-worth was dependent on social media feedback, and four aspects of psychological well-being (including stress, depressive symptoms, resilience, and self-kindness) were assessed among 164 U.S. undergraduate women who completed an online questionnaire. Results indicated that having one’s self-worth dependent on social media feedback was associated with using social media for status-seeking. Women whose self-worth was dependent on social media feedback reported lower levels of resilience and self-kindness and higher levels of stress and depressive symptoms. Additionally, women whose self-worth was highly dependent on social media feedback and who were seeking social status in their online interactions reported higher levels of stress. The present findings suggest that women whose self-worth is dependent on social media feedback are at higher risk for poorer psychological well-being, which has implications for practice and policy regarding women’s mental health.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Andresen, E. M., Byers, K., Friary, J., Kosloski, K., & Montgomery, R. (2013). Performance of the 10-item Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale for caregiving research. SAGE Open Medicine, 1, 2–5. https://doi.org/10.1177/2050312113514576.
Barker, V. (2009). Older adolescents' motivations for social network site use: The influence of gender, group identity, and collective self-esteem. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 12(2), 209–213. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2008.0228.
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–529. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-2909.117.3.497.
Bergman, S. M., Fearrington, M. E., Davenport, S. W., & Bergman, J. Z. (2011). Millennials, narcissism, and social networking: What narcissists do on social networking sites and why. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(5), 706–711. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.12.022.
Bessière, K., Pressman, S., Kiesler, S., & Kraut, R. (2010). Effects of internet use on health and depression: A longitudinal study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 12(1), e6. https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.1149.
Brooks, S. (2015). Does personal social media usage affect efficiency and well-being? Computers in Human Behavior, 46, 26–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.12.053.
Chou, H.-T. G., & Edge, N. (2012). “They are happier and having better lives than I am”: The impact of using Facebook on perceptions of others' lives. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 15(2), 117–121. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2011.0324.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioural sciences. Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
Cohen, S., & Williamson, G. (1988). Perceived stress in a probability sample of the United States. In S. Spacapan & S. Oskamp (Eds.), The Claremont symposium on applied social psychology. The social psychology of health (pp. 31–67). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Crocker, J. (2002). The costs of seeking self–esteem. Journal of Social Issues, 58(3), 597–615. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-4560.00279.
Crocker, J., & Knight, K. M. (2005). Contingencies of self-worth. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14(4), 200–203. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00364.x.
Crocker, J., & Park, L. E. (2004). The costly pursuit of self-esteem. Psychological Bulletin, 130(3), 392–414. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.392.
Crocker, J., Luhtanen, R. K., Cooper, M. L., & Bouvrette, A. (2003). Contingencies of self-worth in college students: Theory and measurement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(5), 894–908. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.5.894.
Duggan, M. (2015). Mobile messaging and social media. Retrieved from http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/08/19/mobile-messaging-and-social-media-2015/. Accessed 10 Oct 2018.
Dumont, M., & Provost, M. A. (1999). Resilience in adolescents: Protective role of social support, coping strategies, self-esteem, and social activities on experience of stress and depression. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 28(3), 343–363. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1021637011732.
Ellison, N. B., Vitak, J., Gray, R., & Lampe, C. (2014). Cultivating social resources on social network sites: Facebook relationship maintenance behaviors and their role in social capital processes. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 19(4), 855–870. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcc4.12078.
Fardouly, J., Pinkus, R. T., & Vartanian, L. R. (2017). The impact of appearance comparisons made through social media, traditional media, and in person in women’s everyday lives. Body Image, 20, 31–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2016.11.002.
Galanakis, M. J., Palaiologou, A., Patsi, G., Velegraki, I.-M., & Darviri, C. (2016). A literature review on the connection between stress and self-esteem. Psychology, 7(05), 687–694. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2016.75071.
Grogan, S., Rothery, L., Cole, J., & Hall, M. (2017). Posting selfies and body image in young adult women: The selfie paradox. The Journal of Social Media in Society, 7(1), 15–36.
Harrell, Z. A., Fredrickson, B. L., Pomerleau, C. S., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2006). The role of trait self-objectification in smoking among college women. Sex Roles, 54(11–12), 735–743. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9041-z.
Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. New York: Guilford Press.
Holland, G., & Tiggemann, M. (2016). A systematic review of the impact of the use of social networking sites on body image and disordered eating outcomes. Body Image, 17, 100–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2016.02.008.
Kross, E., Verduyn, P., Demiralp, E., Park, J., Lee, D. S., Lin, N., … Ybarra, O. (2013). Facebook use predicts declines in subjective well-being in young adults. PLoS One, 8(8), e69841. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0069841
Lewallen, J., & Behm-Morawitz, E. (2016). Pinterest or thinterest?: Social comparison and body image on social media. Social Media+ Society, 2(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305116640559.
Lin, L., Sidani, J. E., Shensa, A., Radovic, A., Miller, E., Colditz, J. B., … Primack, B. A. (2016). Association between social media use and depression among U.S. young adults. Depression and Anxiety, 33(4), 323-331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2012.01.016
Livingstone, S. (2008). Taking risky opportunities in youthful content creation: Teenagers' use of social networking sites for intimacy, privacy and self-expression. New Media & Society, 10(3), 393–411. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444808089415.
Mehdizadeh, S. (2010). Self-presentation 2.0: Narcissism and self-esteem on Facebook. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 13(4), 357–364. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2009.0257.
Meier, E. P., & Gray, J. (2014). Facebook photo activity associated with body image disturbance in adolescent girls. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 17(4), 199–206. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2013.0305.
Melbye, L., Tenenbaum, G., & Eklund, R. (2007). Self-objectification and exercise behaviors: The mediating role of social physique anxiety. Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research, 12(3–4), 196–220. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9861.2008.00021.x.
Mishna, F., Khoury-Kassabri, M., Gadalla, T., & Daciuk, J. (2012). Risk factors for involvement in cyber bullying: Victims, bullies and bully–victims. Children and Youth Services Review, 34(1), 63–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2011.08.032.
Moradi, B., & Huang, Y.-P. (2008). Objectification theory and psychology of women: A decade of advances and future directions. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32(4), 377–398. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.00452.x.
Nadkarni, A., & Hofmann, S. G. (2012). Why do people use Facebook? Personality and Individual Differences, 52(3), 243–249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.11.007.
Neff, K. D. (2003). The development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion. Self and Identity, 2(3), 223–250. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860309027.
Neff, K. D. (2011). Self-compassion, self-esteem, and well-being. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 5(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00330.x.
Neff, K. D. (2016). The self-compassion scale is a valid and theoretically coherent measure of self-compassion. Mindfulness, 7(1), 264–274. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-015-0479-3.
Pantic, I. (2014). Online social networking and mental health. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 17(10), 652–657. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2014.0070.
Park, L. E., Crocker, J., & Kiefer, A. K. (2007). Contingencies of self-worth, academic failure, and goal pursuit. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33(11), 1503–1517. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167207305538.
Park, N., Kee, K. F., & Valenzuela, S. (2009). Being immersed in social networking environment: Facebook groups, uses and gratifications, and social outcomes. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 12(6), 729–733. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2009.0003.
Pew Research Center. (2018). Social media use in 2018. Retrieved from Pew Research Center: http://www.pewinternet.org/2018/03/01/social-media-use-in-2018/. Accessed 28 Nov 2018.
Pittman, M., & Reich, B. (2016). Social media and loneliness: Why an Instagram picture may be worth more than a thousand twitter words. Computers in Human Behavior, 62, 155–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.03.084.
Prichard, I., McLachlan, A. C., Lavis, T., & Tiggemann, M. (2018). The impact of different forms of# fitspiration imagery on body image, mood, and self-objectification among young women. Sex Roles, 78(11–12), 789–798. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0830-3.
Prieler, M., & Choi, J. (2014). Broadening the scope of social media effect research on body image concerns. Sex Roles, 71(11–12), 378–388. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-014-0406-4.
Ramsey, L. R., & Horan, A. L. (2017). Picture this: Women's self-sexualization in photos on social media. Personality and Individual Differences, 133, 85–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.06.022.
Sanchez, D. T., & Crocker, J. (2005). How investment in gender ideals affects well-being: The role of external contingencies of self-worth. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29(1), 63–77. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2005.00169.x.
Santarossa, S., & Woodruff, S. J. (2017). #SocialMedia: Exploring the relationship of social networking sites on body image, self-esteem, and eating disorders. Social Media + Society, 3(2), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305117704407.
Sargent, J. T., Crocker, J., & Luhtanen, R. K. (2006). Contingencies of self–worth and depressive symptoms in college students. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 25(6), 628–646. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2006.25.6.628.
Seabrook, E. M., Kern, M. L., & Rickard, N. S. (2016). Social networking sites, depression, and anxiety: A systematic review. JMIR Mental Health, 3(4), e50. https://doi.org/10.2196/mental.5842.
Seidman, G. (2013). Self-presentation and belonging on Facebook: How personality influences social media use and motivations. Personality and Individual Differences, 54(3), 402–407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.10.009.
Shaw, L. H., & Gant, L. M. (2004). In defense of the internet: The relationship between internet communication and depression, loneliness, self-esteem, and perceived social support. Internet Research, 28(3), 157–171. https://doi.org/10.1089/109493102753770552.
Sheerin, C. M., Lind, M. J., Brown, E. A., Gardner, C. O., Kendler, K. S., & Amstadter, A. B. (2018). The impact of resilience and subsequent stressful life events on MDD and GAD. Depression and Anxiety, 35(2), 140–147. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22700.
Slater, A., Varsani, N., & Diedrichs, P. C. (2017). # fitspo or# loveyourself? The impact of fitspiration and self-compassion Instagram images on women’s body image, self-compassion, and mood. Body Image, 22, 87–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2017.06.004.
Smith, B. W., Dalen, J., Wiggins, K., Tooley, E., Christopher, P., & Bernard, J. (2008). The brief resilience scale: Assessing the ability to bounce back. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 15(3), 194–200. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705500802222972.
Snell, P. A., & Englander, E. (2010). Cyberbullying victimization and behaviors among girls: Applying research findings in the field. Journal of Social Sciences, 6, 510–514. https://doi.org/10.3844/jssp.2010.510.514.
Stefanone, M. A., Lackaff, D., & Rosen, D. (2011). Contingencies of self-worth and social-networking-site behavior. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 14(1–2), 41–49. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2010.0049.
Steinfield, C., Ellison, N. B., & Lampe, C. (2008). Social capital, self-esteem, and use of online social network sites: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 29(6), 434–445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2008.07.002.
Sundar, S. S., & Limperos, A. M. (2013). Uses and grats 2.0: New gratifications for new media. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 57(4), 504–525. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2013.845827.
Tylka, T. L., & Sabik, N. J. (2010). Integrating social comparison theory and self-esteem within objectification theory to predict women’s disordered eating. Sex Roles, 63(1–2), 18–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9785-3.
Valenzuela, S., Park, N., & Kee, K. F. (2009). Is there social capital in a social network site?: Facebook use and college students' life satisfaction, trust, and participation. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 14(4), 875–901. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2009.01474.x.
Valkenburg, P. M., Peter, J., & Schouten, A. (2006). Friend networking sites and their relationship to adolescents' well-being and social self-esteem. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 9(5), 584–590. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2006.9.584.
Whiting, A., & Williams, D. (2013). Why people use social media: A uses and gratifications approach. Qualitative Market Research, 16(4), 362–369. https://doi.org/10.1108/QMR-06-2013-0041.
Wingate, V. S., Minney, J. A., & Guadagno, R. E. (2013). Sticks and stones may break your bones, but words will always hurt you: A review of cyberbullying. Social Influence, 8(2–3), 87–106. https://doi.org/10.1080/15534510.2012.730491.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
We followed APA standards on ethical treatment of participants and the study design was reviewed and approved by the university’s institutional review board (IRB).
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Electronic supplementary material
ESM 1
(DOCX 14 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Sabik, N.J., Falat, J. & Magagnos, J. When Self-Worth Depends on Social Media Feedback: Associations with Psychological Well-Being. Sex Roles 82, 411–421 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-019-01062-8
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-019-01062-8