Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Laurel wilt susceptibility of three avocado (Persea americana Mill.) ecotypes in relation to xylem anatomy, sap flow and leaf gas exchange

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Trees Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Key message

Relative susceptibility to laurel wilt among clonal, non-grafted avocado trees of different ecotypes is relate to the xylem vessel diameter, with larger vessels potentially allowing more rapid movement of fungal conidia in the transpiration stream, creating a potential for faster colonization of the vascular system by the pathogen.

Abstract

Laurel wilt, caused by the fungus Harringtonia lauricola, is a devastating vascular disease prevalent in avocado (Persea americana Mill.) orchards in Florida, where it has caused significant tree losses. Differential susceptibility to laurel wilt has been observed among grafted trees of three avocado ecotypes, Guatemalan (G), and West Indian (WI), and Mexican (M) with grafted WI cultivars reportedly the most susceptible. It has been suggested that differential susceptibility among ecotypes is related to the rate of xylem sap flow as affected xylem vessel size and density. This study compared laurel wilt susceptibility among representative clonally propagated, non-grafted cultivars of three ecotypes (G, WI, and M × G) in relation to xylem vessel anatomy, xylem sap flow rate, net CO2 assimilation (A), stomatal conductance (gs), transpiration (E), intrinsic water use efficiency (WUE), the leaf chlorophyll index (LCI), the ratio of variable to maximum chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm) and hydraulic conductance (Kh). Laurel wilt negatively affected all physiological variables measured and caused a profuse development of tyloses that blocked the xylem vessels and inhibited xylem sap flow in trees of each ecotype. Differences in disease susceptibility were observed among ecotypes, which were related to xylem vessel size, xylem sap flow, and the development of tyloses in xylem vessels. Trees of the ecotype with the greatest inherent functional xylem vessel diameter and sap flow rates were more susceptibility to the disease after inoculation with H. lauricola. Trees of the M × G ecotype formed the most tyloses which blocked the xylem vessels resulting in a greater decrease in sap flow compared to trees of the other ecotypes.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ashworth VETM, Clegg MT (2003) Microsatellite markers in avocado (Persea americana Mill.): genealogical relationships among cultivated avocado genotypes. J Heredity 94:407–415

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bauerle TL, Centinari M, Bauerle WL (2011) Shifts in xylem vessel diameter and embolisms in grafted apple trees of differing rootstock growth potential in response to drought. Planta 234:1045–1054

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beier GL, Lund CD, Held BW, Ploetz RC, Konkol J, Blanchett RA (2021) Variation in xylem characteristics of botanical races of Persea americana and their potential influence on susceptibility to the pathogen Raffaelea lauricola. Trop Plant Pathol 4:202–239

    Google Scholar 

  • Bergh B, Ellstrand N (1986) Taxonomy of the avocado. California Avoc Soc Yrbk 70:135–145

    Google Scholar 

  • Bost JB, Smith NJH, Crane JH (2013) History, distribution and uses. In: Schaffer B, Wolstenholme BN, Whiley AW (eds) The avocado: botany, production and uses, 2nd edn. CAB International Press, Wallingford, pp 31–50

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell A, Ploetz RC, Rollins JA (2017) Comparing avocado, swamp bay, and camphortree as host of Raffaelea lauricola using a green fluorescent protein (GFP)-labeled strain of the pathogen. Phytopathology 107:70–74

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carrillo D, Duncan RE, Peña JE (2012) Ambrosia beetles (Coleoptera:Curculionidae:Scolytinae) that breed in avocado wood in Florida. Florida Entomol 95:573–579

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Castillo-Argaez R, Schaffer B, Vazquez A, Sternberg LDS (2020a) Leaf gas exchange and stable carbon isotope composition of redbay and avocado trees in response to laurel wilt or drought stress. Environ Exp Bot 171:103948

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Castillo-Argaez R, Vargas AI, Schaffer B (2020b) Response of ‘Hass’ avocado trees on different clonal rootstocks to laurel wilt. HortScience 55(9):S320

    Google Scholar 

  • Castillo-Argaez R, Konkol JL, Vargas AI, Ploetz RC, Schaffer B (2021) Disease severity and ecophysiology of rootstock/scion combinations of different avocado (Persea americana Mill.) genotypes in response to laurel wilt. Sci Hortic 287:110250

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Crane JH, Douhan B, Faber BA, Arpaia ML, Bender GS, Balerdi CF, Barrientos Priego AF (2013) Cultivars and rootstocks. In: Schaffer B, Wolstenholme BN, Whiley AW (eds) The avocado: botany, production and uses, 2nd edn. CAB International Press, Wallingford, pp 200–233

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Crane JH, Carrillo D, Evans EA, Gazis R, Schaffer B, Ballen F, Wasielewski J (2020) Recommendations for control and mitigation of laurel wilt and ambrosia beetle vectors in commercial avocado groves in Florida. University of Florida, IFAS Extension Document HS1360. https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/HS1360

  • de Beer ZW, Proctor M, Wingfield MJ, Marincowitz S, Duong TA (2022) Generic boundaries in the Ophiostomatales reconsidered and revised. Stud Mycol 101:57–120

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • De Micco V, Balzano A, Wheeler EA, Baas P (2016) Tyloses and gums: a review of structure, function and occurrence of vessel occlusions. IAWA J 37:186–205

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dugas WA (1990) Sap flow in stems. Remote Sens Rev 5:225–235

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ernst AA, Whiley AW, Bender GS (2013) Propagation. In: Schaffer B, Wolstenholme BN, Whiley AW (eds) The avocado: botany, production and uses, 2nd edn. CAB International Press, Wallingford, pp 234–267

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Ewers FW, Fisher JB (1989) Techniques for measuring vessel lengths and diameters in stems of woody plants. Am J Bot 76:645–656

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • FAO (2020) (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Statistical Division), 2020. Production quantities of avocados by country. http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC/visualize

  • Fassio C, Heath R, Arpaia ML, Castro M (2009) Sap flow in ‘Hass’ avocado trees on two clonal rootstocks in relation to xylem anatomy. Sci Hortic 120:8–13

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ge Y, Zhang T, Wu B, Tan L, Ma F, Zou M, Chen H, Pei J, Liu Y, Chen Z, Xu Z, Wang T (2019) Genome-wide assessment of avocado germplasm determined from specific length amplified fragment sequencing and transcriptomes: population structure, genetic diversity, identification, and application of race-specific markers. Genes 10:215

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Inch S, Ploetz RC (2012) Impact of laurel wilt caused by Raffaelea lauricola on xylem function of avocado, Persea americana. For Pathol 42:239–245

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Inch S, Ploetz RC, Held B, Blanchette R (2012) Histological and anatomical responses in avocado, Persea americana, induced by the vascular wilt pathogen, Raffaelea lauricola. Botany 90:627–635

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Konkol J, Wang Q, Rollins JA (2021) Spatiotemporal pathogen tracking and histological responses of swamp bay, Persea palustris, during colonization by Raffaelea lauricola. Phytopathology 111(Suppl):32

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayfield AE, Peña JE, Crane JH, Smith JA, Branch CL, Ottoson ED, Hughes M (2008) Ability of the redbay ambrosia beetle (Coleoptera:Curculionidae:Scolytinae) to bore into young avocado (Lauraceae) plants and transmit the laurel wilt pathogen (Raffaelea sp.). Florida Entomol 91:485–487

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McNabb HS, Heybroek HM, MacDonald W (1970) Anatomical factors in resistance to Dutch elm disease. Neth J Plant Pathol 76:196–205

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Menard RD, Clarke SR, Fraedrich SW, Harrington TC (2016) First report of laurel wilt, caused by Raffaelea lauricola, on redbay (Persea borbonia) in Texas. Plant Dis 100:150

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Narandžić T, Ljubojević M, Ostojić J, Barać G, Ognjanov V (2021) Investigation of stem anatomy in relation to hydraulic conductance, vegetative growth and yielding potential of ‘Summit’ cherry trees grafted on different rootstock candidates. Folia Hort 3:1–17

    Google Scholar 

  • Olatinwo R, Hwang J, Johnson W (2021) First report of Laurel Wilt disease caused by Raffaelea lauricola on spicebush in Louisiana. Plant Dis 105:2250

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ploetz RC, Pérez-Martínez JM, Smith JA, Hughes M, Dreaden TJ, Inch SA, Fu Y (2012) Responses of avocado to laurel wilt caused by Raffaelea lauricola. Plant Pathol 61:801–808

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ploetz RC, Schaffer B, Vargas AI, Konkol JL, Salvatierra J, Wideman R (2015) Impact of laurel wilt caused by Raffaelea lauricola on leaf gas exchange and xylem sap flow in avocado, Persea americana. Phytopathology 105:433–440

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ploetz RC, Thant YY, Hughes MA, Dreaden TJ, Konkol JL, Kyaw AT, Smith JA, Harmon CL (2016) Laurel wilt, caused by Raffaelea lauricola, is detected for the first time outside the southeastern United States. Plant Dis 100:2166

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pockman WT, Sperry JS (2000) Vulnerability to xylem cavitation and the distribution of Sonoran Desert vegetation. Am J Bot 87:1287–1299

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pouzoulet J, Pivovaroff AL, Santiago LS, Rolshausen PE (2014) Can vessel dimension explain tolerance toward fungal vascular wilt diseases in woody plants? Lessons from Dutch elm disease and esca disease in grapevine. Front Plant Sci 5:253

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pouzoulet J, Scudiero E, Schiavon M, Rolshausen PE (2017) Xylem vessel diameter affects the compartmentalization of the vascular pathogen Phaeomoniella chlamydospora in grapevine. Front Plant Sci 8:1442

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pouzoulet J, Scudiero E, Schiavon M, Santiago LS, Rolshausen PE (2019) Modeling of xylem vessel occlusion in grapevine. Tree Physiol 39:1438–1445

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pouzoulet J, Rolshausen PE, Charbois R, Chen J, Guillaumie S, Ollat N, Gambetta GA, Delmas CE (2021) Behind the curtain of the compartmentalization process: exploring how xylem vessel diameter impacts vascular pathogen resistance. Plant Cell Environ 43:2782–2796

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scholz A, Klepsch M, Karimi Z, Jansen S (2013) How to quantify conduits in wood? Front Plant Sci 4:56

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Simons RK (1986) Graft-union characteristics as related to dwarfing in apple (Malus domestica Borkh.). Acta Hortic 160:57–66

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Solla A, Gil L (2002) Xylem vessel diameter as a factor in resistance of Ulmus minor to Ophiostoma novo-ulmi. Forest Pathol 32:123–134

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Soumelidou K, Battey NH, John P, Barnett JR (1994) The anatomy of the developing bud union and its relationship to dwarfing in apple. Ann Bot 74:605–611

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sperry JS, Hacke UG, Pittermann J (2006) Size and function in conifer tracheids and angiosperm vessels. Am J Bot 93:1490–1500

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg S, van Bavel CH, McFarland MJ (1989) A gauge to measure mass flow rate of sap in stems and trunks of woody plants. J Am Soc Hortic Sci 114:466–472

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trifilo P, Gullo MA, Nardini A, Pernice F, Salleo S (2007) Rootstock effects on xylem conduit dimensions and vulnerability to cavitation of Olea europaea L. Trees 21:549–556

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Venturas M, López R, Martín JA, Gascó A, Gil L (2014) Heritability of Ulmus minor resistance to Dutch elm disease and its relationship to vessel size, but not to xylem vulnerability to drought. Plant Pathol 63:500–509

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Whiley AW, Schaffer B (1994) Avocado. In: Schaffer B, Andersen PC (eds) Handbook of environmental physiology of fruit crops, vol 2. Subtropical and Tropical Crops. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 3–36

    Google Scholar 

  • Yadeta KA, Thomma BP (2013) The xylem as battleground for plant hosts and vascular wilt pathogens. Front Plant Sci 4:97

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors thank Randy Fernandez for help with maintaining the plants.

Funding

This study was funded by United States Department of Agriculture Grants 2015-51181-24257 and USDA-AMS-SCBGP-2015, No. 022923.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Tropical Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Homestead, FL, 33031, USA

    Raiza Castillo-Argaez, Aime Vazquez, Ana I. Vargas, Randy C. Ploetz & Bruce Schaffer

  2. Current address: Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA

    Raiza Castillo-Argaez

  3. Current address: USDA, ARS, Subtropical Horticulture Research Station, Miami, FL, 33158, USA

    Aime Vazquez

  4. Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA

    Joshua L. Konkol

Authors
  1. Raiza Castillo-Argaez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Aime Vazquez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Joshua L. Konkol
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Ana I. Vargas
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Randy C. Ploetz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Bruce Schaffer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Bruce Schaffer.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Additional information

Communicated by Feau.

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Castillo-Argaez, R., Vazquez, A., Konkol, J.L. et al. Laurel wilt susceptibility of three avocado (Persea americana Mill.) ecotypes in relation to xylem anatomy, sap flow and leaf gas exchange. Trees 36, 1649–1663 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00468-022-02319-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00468-022-02319-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation