Abstract
Treated effluents from a pharmaceutical industry were analysed using purge and trap coupled with gas chromatography-mass spectrophotometry to determine the presence of organic solvents. Solvents such as dichloromethane, chloroform, toluene, tetrahydrofuran and chlorobenzene were detected. A health risk assessment study using both the deterministic method and a probabilistic approach by Monte Carlo simulations were then carried out on children, adults and pregnant women considering oral ingestion, dermal contact and fish intake as the exposure routes. Among the various categories of receptors considered, the results obtained by both methods revealed that children are more sensitive followed by pregnant women, since their total hazard index (HItotal risk) exceeded the safe exposure limit for non-carcinogens. It is also evidenced that oral and dermal contact are the crucial routes of exposure among children, adults and pregnant women. The fish intake had the minimal impact on all receptors, which might be due to the lesser affinity of these solvents to sorb onto fish tissues. Cancer risk because of dichloromethane and chloroform exposure was found to be negligible (2.8×10-8 for children, 1.3×10-7 for adults, 3.9×10-7 for pregnant women) since the computed risk was well below the acceptable range (10-4 - 10-6). The total non-carcinogenic risk calculated from the probabilistic approach exceeded the deterministic approach by 1.9 times, 1.02 times, 1.8 times for children, adults and pregnant women, respectively. This might be due to incorporating lower values among the possible range for the parameters involved during deterministic risk assessment.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
All relevant data are included in the manuscript.
References
Agrawal A, Kumari S, Sahu KK (2011) Studies on solvent extraction of iron (III ) as a step for conversion of a waste effluent to a value added product. J Environ Manage 92:3105–3111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2011.07.026
Akdeniz N, Jacobson LD, Hetchler BP (2013) Health risk assessment of occupational exposure to hazardous volatile organic compounds in swine gestation, farrowing and nursery barns. Environ Sci Process Impacts 15:563–572. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2em30722g
Alidadi H, Sany SBT, Oftadeh BZG, Mohamad T, Shamszade H, Fakhari M (2019) Health risk assessments of arsenic and toxic heavy metal exposure in drinking water in northeast Iran. Environ Health Prev Med 24:1–17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12199-019-0812-x
Bakhtavar E, Hosseini S, Hewage K, Sadiq R (2021) Air pollution risk assessment using a hybrid fuzzy intelligent probability-based approach: mine blasting dust impacts. Nat Resour Res 30:2607–2627. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11053-020-09810-4
Banton MI, Bus JS, Collins JJ, Delzell E, Gelbke HP, Kester JE, Moore MM, Waites R, Sarang SS (2019) Evaluation of potential health effects associated with occupational and environmental exposure to styrene–an update. J Toxicol Environ Heal - Part B Crit Rev doi. https://doi.org/10.1080/10937404.2019.1633718
Bearer C (1995) How are children different from adults? Environmental Health Perspectives. 103:7–12. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.95103s67
Blum KM, Andersson PL, Renman G, Ahrens L, Gros M, Wiberg K, Haglund P (2017) Non-target screening and prioritization of potentially persistent, bioaccumulating and toxic domestic wastewater contaminants and their removal in on-site and large-scale sewage treatment plants. Sci Total Environ 575:265–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.09.135
Bramante CT, Spiller P, Landa M (2020) Fish consumption during pregnancy: An opportunity, not a risk. HHS Public Access 172:801–802. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.1619
Bruce ED, Abusalih AA, McDonald TJ, Autenrieth RL (2007) Comparing deterministic and probabilistic risk assessments for sites contaminated by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). J Environ Sci Heal - Part A Toxic/Hazardous Subst. Environ Eng 42:697–706. https://doi.org/10.1080/10934520701304328
Caetano T, Branco V, Cavaco A, Carvalho C (2019) Risk assessment of methylmercury in pregnant women and newborns in the island of Madeira (Portugal) using exposure biomarkers and food-frequency questionnaires. J Toxicol Environ Heal - Part A Curr Issues 82:833–844. https://doi.org/10.1080/15287394.2019.1658859
Carder M, Seed MJ, Money A, Agius RM, Van Tongeren M (2019) Occupational and work-related respiratory disease attributed to cleaning products. Occup Environ Med 76:530–536. https://doi.org/10.1136/oemed-2018-105646
Chance GW, Harmsen E (1998) Children are different: environmental contaminants and children's health. Can J Public Health. 89 Suppl 1:S9-S15. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9654786
Changing Markets Foundation (2018) Hyderabad’s pharmaceutical pollution crisis: Heavy metal and solvent contamination at factories in a major Indian drug manufacturing hub. http://www.changingmarkets.org/(Accessed on 20 June 2021)
Clemens RT (1996) Hard Decisions: An Introduction to Decision Analysis. Duxbury Press, Pacific Grove, CA, pp 410–426
Collier AC (2007) Pharmaceutical contaminants in potable water: Potential concerns for pregnant women and children. Ecohealth 4:164–171. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10393-007-0105-5
Ershow AG, Brown LM, Cantor KP (1991) Intake of tapwater and total water by pregnant and lactating women. Am J Public Health 81:328–334. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.81.3.328
Fallahzadeh RA, Miri M, Taghavi M, Gholizadeh A, Anbarani R, Hosseini-Bandegharaei A, Ferrante M, Oliveri Conti G (2018) Spatial variation and probabilistic risk assessment of exposure to fluoride in drinking water. Food Chem Toxicol 113:314–321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2018.02.001
Fan C, Wang GS, Chen YC, Ko CH (2009) Risk assessment of exposure to volatile organic compounds in groundwater in Taiwan. Sci Total Environ 407:2165–2174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.12.015
Felter SP, Daston GP, Euling SY, Piersma AH, Tassinari MS (2015) Assessment of health risks resulting from early-life exposures: Are current chemical toxicity testing protocols and risk assessment methods adequate? Crit Rev Toxicol doi. https://doi.org/10.3109/10408444.2014.993919
Gago-Ferrero P, Gros M, Ahrens L, Wiberg K (2017) Impact of on-site, small and large scale wastewater treatment facilities on levels and fate of pharmaceuticals, personal care products, artificial sweeteners, pesticides, and perfluoroalkyl substances in recipient waters. Sci Total Environ 601–602:1289–1297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.05.258
García V, Pongrácz E, Phillips PS, Keiski RL (2013) From waste treatment to resource efficiency in the chemical industry: recovery of organic solvents from waters containing electrolytes by pervaporation. J Clean Prod 39:146–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.08.020
Ghosh SP, Raj D, Maiti SK (2020) Risks assessment of heavy metal pollution in roadside soil and vegetation of national highway crossing through industrial area. Environ Process 7:1197–1220. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40710-020-00463-2
Girish CR, Murty VR (2015) Adsorption of phenol from aqueous solution using Lantana camara, forest waste: packed bed studies and prediction of breakthrough curves. Environ Process 2:773–796. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40710-015-0117-z
Guerra F, Trevizam AR, Muraoka T, Marcante NC, Canniatti-Brazaca SG (2012) Heavy metals in vegetables and potential risk for human health. Sci Agric 69:54–60. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-90162012000100008
Guissouma W, Hakami O, Al-rajab AJ, Tarhouni J (2017) Risk assessment of fluoride exposure in drinking water of Tunisia. Chemosphere 177:102–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.03.011
Guleria A, Chakma S (2021) Probabilistic human health risk assessment of groundwater contamination due to metal leaching: A case study of Indian dumping sites. Hum Ecol Risk Assess. 27:101–133. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2019.1695193
Guo G, Zhang D, Wang Y (2019) Probabilistic human health risk assessment of heavy metal intake via vegetable consumption around Pb/Zn smelters in Southwest China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 16:3267. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16183267
Guyton KZ, Hogan KA, Scott CS, Cooper GS, Bale AS, Kopylev L, Barone S, Makris SL, Glenn B, Subramaniam RP, Gwinn MR, Dzubow RC, Chiu WA (2014) Human health effects of tetrachloroethylene: Key findings and scientific issues. Environ Health Perspect 122(4):325–334. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1307359
Howard PH, Muir DCG (2013) Identifying new persistent and bioaccumulative organics among chemicals in commerce: Byproducts, impurities, and transformation products. Environ Sci Technol 47:5259–5266. https://doi.org/10.1021/es4004075
Hu G, Bakhtavar E, Hewage K, Mohseni M, Sadiq R (2019) Heavy metals risk assessment in drinking water: An integrated probabilistic- fuzzy approach. J Environ Manage 250:109514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.109514
IARC (2021) International Agency for Research on Cancer, Agency of World Health Organization. https://www.iarc.who.int/. (Accessed on 25 June 2021)
IPCS (2010) International Programme on Chemical Safety, WHO human health risk assessment toolkit: chemical hazards. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/44113 (Accessed on 25 June 2021)
IRIS (2019) Integrated Risk Information System. US Environmental Proctection Agency, Washington, DC. https://www.epa.gov/iris/. (Accessed on 25 June 2021)
Jimenez-Oyola S, Escobar Segovia K, García-Martínez MJ, Ortega M, Bolonio D, García-Garizabal I, Salgado B (2021) Human health risk assessment for exposure to potentially toxic elements in polluted rivers in the ecuadorian amazon. Water 13:613. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13050613
Jukic AM, Baird DD, Weinberg CR, McConnaughey DR, Wilcox AJ (2013) Length of human pregnancy and contributors to its natural variation. Hum Reprod 28:2848–2855. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/det297
Kanwar P (2018) Ecological risk in the anthropocene: an evaluation of theory, values, and social construct. Encyclopedia of the Anthropocene 4:367–372. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-809665-9.10487-2
Karunathilake H, Bakhtavar E, Chhipi-Shrestha G, Mian H, Hewage K, Sadiq R (2020) Decision making for risk management: A multi-criteria perspective. Methods in Chemical Process Safety.:239–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.mcps.2020.02.004
Kaur L, Rishi MS, Siddiqui AU (2020) Deterministic and probabilistic health risk assessment techniques to evaluate non-carcinogenic human health risk (NHHR) due to fluoride and nitrate in groundwater of Panipat, Haryana, India. Environ Pollut 259:113711. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113711
Kortei NK, Heymann ME, Essuman EK, Kpodo FM, Akonor PT, Lokpo SY, Boadi NO, Ayim-Akonor M, Tettey C (2020) Health risk assessment and levels of toxic metals in fishes (Oreochromis noliticus and Clarias anguillaris) from Ankobrah and Pra basins: Impact of illegal mining activities on food safety. Toxicol Reports 7:360–369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxrep.2020.02.011
Kumar A, Chang B, Xagoraraki I (2010) Human health risk assessment of pharmaceuticals in water: Issues and challenges ahead. Int J Environ Res Public Health 7:3929–3953. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph7113929
Lando AM, Fein SB, Choinière CJ (2012) Awareness of methylmercury in fish and fish consumption among pregnant and postpartum women and women of childbearing age in the United States. Environ Res 116:85–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2012.04.002
Lee LJH, Chan CC, Chung CW, Yee-Chung WGS, Wang J (2002) Health risk assessment on residents exposed to chlorinated hydrocarbons contaminated in groundwater of a hazardous waste site. J Toxicol Environ Heal - Part A 65:219–235. https://doi.org/10.1080/15287390252800828
Liao VHC, Chou WC, Chio CP, Ju YR, Liao CM (2010) A probabilistic approach to quantitatively assess the inhalation risk for airborne endotoxin in cotton textile workers. J Hazard Mater 177:103–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.11.151
Lundqvist A, Johansson I, Wennberg AL, Hultdin J, Högberg U, Hamberg K, Sandström H (2014) Reported dietary intake in early pregnant compared to non-pregnant women - A cross-sectional study. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 14:373. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-014-0373-3
LuoY GW, Ngo HH, Nghiem LD, Hai FI, Zhang J, Liang S, Wang XC (2014) A review on the occurrence of micropollutants in the aquatic environment and their fate and removal during wastewater treatment. Sci Total Environ 473–474:619–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.12.065
Maxwell O, Olusegun OA, ESB J II, Mary AT, Emeka EO, Uchechukwu OA, Adeleye BN, Michael OM (2021) measurements of seasonal variations of radioactivity distributions in riverine soil sediment of Ado-Odo Ota. South-West Nigeria: Probabilistic approach using Monte Carlo 193:76–89. https://doi.org/10.1093/rpd/ncab027
Modla G, Lang P (2012) Removal and recovery of organic solvents from aqueous waste mixtures by extractive and pressure swing distillation. Ind Eng Chem Res 51:11473–11481. https://doi.org/10.1021/ie300331d
Narciso L, Catone T, Aquilina G, Attias L, De Angelis I, Iuliano MG, Tassinari R, Mantovani A, Maranghi F (2017) The juvenile toxicity study as a tool for a science-based risk assessment in the children population group. Reproductive Toxicology 72:136–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.reprotox.2017.06.188
Narsimha A, Sudarshan V (2017) Contamination of fluoride in groundwater and its effect on human health: a case study in hard rock aquifers of Siddipet, Telangana State, India. Appl Water Sci 7:2501–2512. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-016-0441-0
Ndikom CM, Fawole B, Ilesanmi RE (2014) Extra fluids for breastfeeding mothers for increasing milk production. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD008758.pub2
Noutsopoulos C, Charalambous V, Koumaki E (2020) evaluating the fate of emerging contaminants in wastewater treatment plants through plant-wide mathematical modelling. Environ Process 7:1065–1094. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40710-020-00459-y
Ofori SA, Cobbina SJ, Imoro AZ, Doke DA, Gaiser T (2021) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (pah) pollution and its associated human health risks in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria: a systematic review. Environ Process 8:455–482. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40710-021-00507-1
Orosun MM (2021) Assessment of arsenic and its associated health risks due to mining activities in parts of North-central Nigeria: Probabilistic approach using Monte Carlo. J Hazard Mater 412:125262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.125262
Orosun MM, Adewuyi AD, Salawu NB, Isinkaye MO, Orosun OR, Oniku AS (2020) Monte Carlo approach to risks assessment of heavy metals at automobile spare part and recycling market in Ilorin, Nigeria. Sci Rep 10:22084. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-79141-0
Pirsaheb M, Hadei M, Sharafi K (2021) Human health risk assessment by Monte Carlo simulation method for heavy metals of commonly consumed cereals in Iran- Uncertainty and sensitivity analysis. J. Food Compos. Anal. 96:103697. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2020.103697
Pitiriciu M, Tansel B (2021) Volatile organic contaminants (VOCs) emitted from sewer networks during wastewater collection and transport. J Environ Manage 285:112136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112136
RAIS (2019) The Risk Assessment Information System: Toxicity Values and Physical Parameters. https://rais.ornl.gov/cgi-bin/tools/TOX_search. (Accessed 25 June 2021)
Rajasekhar B, Nambi IM, Govindarajan SK (2018) Human health risk assessment of ground water contaminated with petroleum PAHs using Monte Carlo simulations: A case study of an Indian metropolitan city. J Environ Manage 205:183–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.09.078
Raju A, Singh A (2017) Assessment of groundwater quality and mapping human health risk in Central Ganga Alluvial Plain, Northern India. Environ. Process. 4:375–397. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40710-017-0232-0
Ramirez N, Marcé RM, Borrull F (2011) Determination of volatile organic compounds in industrial wastewater plant air emissions by multi-sorbent adsorption and thermal desorption-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Intern. J Environ Anal Chem 91:10–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/03067310903584073
Rees D, Soderlund N, Cronje R, Song E, Kielkowski D, Myers J (1993) Solvent exposure, alcohol consumption and liver injury in workers manufacturing paint. Scand J Work Environ Heal 19:236–244. https://doi.org/10.5271/sjweh.1478
Rishi MS, Kaur L, Sharma S (2020) Groundwater quality appraisal for non-carcinogenic human health risks and irrigation purposes in a part of Yamuna sub-basin. India. Hum. Ecol. Risk Assess. 26:2716–2736. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2019.1682514
Rudel H, Körner W, Letzel T, Neumann M, Nödler K, Reemtsma T (2020) Persistent, mobile and toxic substances in the environment: a spotlight on current research and regulatory activities. Environ. Sci. Eur. 32:5. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-019-0286-x
Saleh HN, Panahande M, Yousefi M, Asghari FB, Oliveri Conti G, Talaee E, Mohammadi AA (2019) Carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risk assessment of heavy metals in groundwater wells in Neyshabur Plain, Iran. Biol Trace Elem Res 190:251–261. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-018-1516-6
Santacruz A, Collado MC, García-Valdés L, Segura MT, Marítn-Lagos JA, Anjos T, Martí-Romero M, Lopez RM, Florido J, Campoy C, Sanz Y (2010) Gut microbiota composition is associated with body weight, weight gain and biochemical parameters in pregnant women. Br J Nutr. 104:83–92. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114510000176
Shi M, Zhang R, Wang Y, Zhang Y, Zhang Y, Zhang Y (2020) Health risk assessments of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and chlorinated/brominated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urban air particles in a haze frequent area in China. Emerg Contam 6:172–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emcon.2020.04.002
Shokoohi R, Khazaei M, Karami M, Seid-Mohammadi A, Khotanlou H, Berijani N, Torkshavand Z (2021) Deterministic and probabilistic human health risk assessment approach of exposure to heavy metals in drinking water sources: A case study of a semi-arid region in the west of Iran. J Environ Health Sci Engineer 19:1047–1055. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40201-021-00671-4/Published
Silver E, Kaslow J, Lee D, Lee S, Lynn M, Weis E, Ujihara A (2007) Fish consumption and advisory awareness among low-income women in California’s Sacramento – San Joaquin Delta. Environmental Research 104:410–419. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2007.03.003
Singh G, Rishi MS, Herojeet R, Kaur L, Sharma K (2020) Evaluation of groundwater quality and human health risks from fluoride and nitrate in semi-arid region of northern India. Environ Geochem Health 42:1833–1862. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-019-00449-6
Sorengard M, Campos-Pereira H, Ullberg M, Lai FY, Golovko O, Ahrens L (2019) Mass loads, source apportionment, and risk estimation of organic micropollutants from hospital and municipal wastewater in recipient catchments. Chemosphere 234:931–941. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.06.041
Sparkman OD, Penton ZE, Kitson FG (2011). Gas Chromatography and Mass Spectrometry (Second Edition) Academic Press. 15-83. ISBN 9780123736284. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-373628-4.00002-2
Srinivasan R, Rajasekhar B, Nambi IM (2021) Deterministic and probabilistic health risk assessment for exposure to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in an Indian river. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 28:39826–39839. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-11897-4
Trommer H, Neubert RHH (2006) Overcoming the stratum corneum: The modulation of skin penetration. A review. 19:106–121. https://doi.org/10.1159/000091978
Ukai H, Takada S, Inui S, Imai Y, Kawai T, Shimbo SI, Ikeda M (1994) Occupational exposure to solvent mixtures: effects on health and metabolism. Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 51:523–529. https://doi.org/10.1136/oem.51.8.523
US EPA (1989) Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund. Volume I (Part A). Human Health Evaluation Manual. EPA/540/1-89/002Washington, D.C. Office of Emergency and Remedial Response US Environmental Protection Agency.
US EPA (2000) Guidance for assessing chemical contaminant data for use in fish advisories. Volume II. Risk assessment and fish consumption limits. 3rd ed. EPA 823-B-00-008
US EPA (2001) Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund: Volume III (Part A). Process for Conducting Probabilistic Risk Assessment. Office of Emergency and Remedial Response. US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, EPA 540-R-02-002 OSWER 9285.7-45 PB2002 963302
US EPA (2003) Method 5030C (SW-846): Purge-and-Trap for Aqueous Samples. Revision 3. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC
US EPA (2004) Risk Assessment: Guidance for Superfund Volume I. Human Heatlh Evaluation Manual (Part E, Supplemental Guidance for Dermal Risk Assessment) Final Office of Superfund Remediation and Technology Innovation US Environmental Protection Agency Washington, DC, EPA/540/R/99/005 OSWER 9285.7-02EP PB99-963312 July 2004
US EPA (2005) Guidance on Selecting Age Groups for Monitoring and Assessing Childhood Exposures to Environmental Contaminants. Risk Assessment Forum US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, EPA/630/P-03/003F
US EPA (2011) Exposure Factors Handbook 2011 Edition (Final Report). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC, EPA/600/R-09/052F, 2011
Vandenplas O, D’Alpaos V, Evrard G, Jamart J, Thimpont J, Huaux F, Renauld JC (2013) Asthma related to cleaning agents: A clinical insight. BMJ Open 3:e003568. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2013-003568
Wang CC, Niu ZG, Zhang Y (2013a) Health risk assessment of inhalation exposure of irrigation workers and the public to trihalomethanes from reclaimed water in landscape irrigation in Tianjin, North China. J Hazard Mater 262:179–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2013.08.044
Wang CC, Niu ZG, ZhangY (2013b) Health risk assessment of inhalation exposure of irrigation workers and the public to trihalomethanes from reclaimed water in landscape irrigation in Tianjin, North China. J Hazard Mater 262:179–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2013.08
WHO (2017) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. Volume IV. ISBN: 978-92-4-154995-0 https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241549950 (Accessed on 10 June 2021)
Wolterink GA, Piersma A, Van Engelen J (2002) Risk assessment of chemicals: What about children?, RIVM report 613340005. https://www.rivm.nl/bibliotheek/rapporten/613340005.pdf (Accessed on 12 July 2021)
Wong MH, Armour MA, Naidu R, Man M (2012) Persistent toxic substances: Sources, fates and effects. Rev Environ Health 27:207–213. https://doi.org/10.1515/reveh-2012-0040
Wu B, Zhang Y, Zhang XX, Cheng SP (2011) Health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the source water and drinking water of China: Quantitative analysis based on published monitoring data. Sci Total Environ 410–411:112–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.09.046
Yang C, Xiao Z, Ho S, Wu T, Tsai S (2007) Association between trihalomethane concentrations in drinking water and adverse pregnancy outcome in Taiwan. Environ Res 104(3):390–395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2007.01.006
Zhang L, Huang D, Yang J, Wei X, Qin J, Ou S, Zhang Z, Zou Y (2017) Probabilistic risk assessment of Chinese residents’ exposure to fluoride in improved drinking water in endemic fluorosis areas. Environ. Pollut. 222:118–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.12.074
Zhang Y, Xu B, Guo Z, Han J, Li H, Jin L, Chen F, Xiong Y (2019) Human health risk assessment of groundwater arsenic contamination in Jinghui irrigation district, China. J Environ Manag 237:163–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.02.067
Zhou Y, Zhu X, Qin Y, Li Y, Zhang M, Liu W, Huang H, Xu Y (2019) Association between total water intake and dietary intake of pregnant and breastfeeding women in China: A cross-sectional survey. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 19:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-019-2301-z
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
S. Mohan: Supervision, Writing - review & editing, Visualization. S. Sruthy: Methodology, Formal analysis, Data curation, Validation, Writing - original draft.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that no competing interests exist.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Article highlights
• Carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic solvents were found in pharmaceutical effluent
• Health risk assessment on children, adults and pregnant women were studied
• Non-carcinogenic risks were likely to occur in all receptors as Hazard Index was >1
• Oral ingestion and dermal contact were found to be the critical exposure routes
• No health concerns due to carcinogenic solvents were observed
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Mohan, S., Sruthy, S. Human Health Risk Assessment due to Solvent Exposure from Pharmaceutical Industrial Effluent: Deterministic and Probabilistic Approaches. Environ. Process. 9, 18 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40710-022-00571-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40710-022-00571-1