Abstract
The European Union was created in the aftermath of the Second World War (1939–1945) and in the beginning, its cohesion policy was closely intertwined with a regional policy—aiming at balancing economic and social conditions across different regions. In the aftermath of the 2008 financial crisis, the concept of “territorial cohesion” emerges and cities become the gravitational pole where progress and equality among regions are fostered. Since its beginning in the nineteenth century, Portugal’s spatial planning has been limited, ill-contrived and full of contradictions. Recent public policy instruments intend to change this by shaping national policies according to European policies leading to a national spatial planning identity crisis with serious consequences.
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Notes
- 1.
Currently, the sixth package, 2021–2027, confirms this representing €330.2 billion out of a total of €1074.3 billion (Consilium, 2021).
- 2.
Conference of Ministers responsible for Spatial/Regional Planning.
- 3.
Unrelated to the European Union, the Council of Europe was founded in 1949, and it aims at promoting human rights, democracy and the rule of law.
- 4.
The Portuguese economy was not at a high when the 2008 financial crisis hit, which contributed to a diminished resilience. Since the 1990s, inappropriate incentives increased resource misallocation at industry and firm levels, exacerbating market inefficiencies. Firms have a hard time incorporating R&D and promoting internationalisation strategies. The public sector performs insufficient policy evaluation, and it has a tendency to change policies when a new government takes charge. This explains why Portugal has a lower level of productivity up until today than advanced economies though it has experienced improvement at some levels. This slowdown in productivity is associated with a slower improvement of living standards. (see Alves, 2017).
- 5.
In the nineteenth century, fluctuations and prediction errors were commonly attributed to “psychological” factors. In the transition of the nineteenth to the twentieth century, this connection weakened, and the mathematisation of Economics took place, like in many other disciplines. Modelling was the way forward, and a given standard agent became representative of a Rational Expectation embodying the Rational Choice. In the 1950s, outside mainstream economics, this approach started being questioned. Since the 1990s, behavioural economics is the most significant trend in mainstream economics, integrating insights from psychology and analysing what happens in markets populated by agents which do not conform to standard criteria of rationality (Geiger, 2015). For better or for worse, Economics is a social science.
- 6.
- 7.
José Viana Barreto (1924–2012) was one of Portugal’s first Landscape Architects, and in 1953, he was the first to work at the government level for the Directorate-General for Urbanisation Services. His father, Lieutenant Colonel Álvaro Salvação Barreto, was Mayor of Lisbon’s City Hall between (1944 and 1959). In the early 1950s, he created a Landscape Architecture department, a pioneering initiative. Ribeiro Telles, also one of the country’s first Landscape Architects, who had studied with Viana Barreto, worked for the department and between 1951 and 1959 designed 93 green spaces (Barreto, 2011, pp. 5, 6). Gonçalo Ribeiro Telles (1922–2020) was State Secretary for the Environment in Provisional Governments I (1974) and IV (1975); Subsecretary for the Environment in the Provisional Governments II (1974) and III (1974–1975); and State Minister for Quality of Life in Constitutional Government VIII (1981–83) remaining politically active throughout his life striving to encourage legislation that would assure that economic and social development would be implemented following sustainability standards (Arquivo Histórico, 2021).
- 8.
Freitas do Amaral held a PhD in Administrative Law, which is a branch of Public Law. Urban Planning Law is a branch of Administrative Law. In 1989 he edited a book on Urban Planning Law in an attempt to provide a state of the art (Amaral, 1989).
- 9.
For a detailed account of policy institutions and policy instruments at national, regional and local levels, see EC (2000).
- 10.
On this process and for a detailed analysis of the legal framework, see Oliveira et al. (2017). The authors had suggested that to revise this sudden change, a meticulous study should be conducted during one year, followed by public debate, also for one year, so that at least one year before legislative elections (in 2021), a renewed map and a clear mission of each parish was available (pp. 96–98). It has been recently announced that after the 2021 legislative elections, it is possible that the change will be reversed, replacing the new map for the old map (Anonymous, 2021). However, no study has been mentioned, and it is still uncertain on what grounds would that change take place.
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Soeiro, D. (2021). Spatial and Urban Planning. In: Cities, Health and Wellbeing. Sustainable Urban Futures. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89348-4_4
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