Abstract
The global energy scene is awash with discourse, policies and technologies clamoring for clean energy. The global energy sector is now focused on transitioning from fossil-based fuels to low-carbon ones. The energy landscape in Africa, however, tells a different story. While there are significant efforts to utilize less-polluting sources of energy in Africa, there has also been a swell in recent oil and gas discoveries, and many African countries are at the brink of capitalizing them. Through an interpretive analysis of Africa’s resource potential as well as its energy production and consumption, this chapter argues that the energy transition in Africa will take a different form from the rest of the world’s. A wholesale transition would be misplaced, not because of a lack of legitimacy in the transition’s concerns but rather because of the attendant risks of the transition. Using South Africa, Kenya Ethiopia and Morocco as case studies, the chapter will demonstrate the barriers to Africa’s energy transition and advocate for blended strategies that would allow African countries to capitalize their fossil fuel reserves while at the self-same time achieve a path consistent with the Paris Targets.
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Notes
- 1.
Article 2 UNFCCC.
- 2.
Article 17 UNFCCC.
- 3.
Article 7 UNFCCC.
- 4.
Article 10 Kyoto Protocol.
- 5.
Article 17 Kyoto Protocol.
- 6.
Article 12 Kyoto Protocol.
- 7.
Article 6 Kyoto Protocol.
- 8.
Articles 11(3) and 13(9) Paris Agreement.
- 9.
Whitesell William Climate Policy Foundations: Science and Economics with Lessons from Monetary Regulation (Cambridge University Press 2011).
- 10.
‘Lake Turkana Wind Power’, https://ltwp.co.ke/, accessed 9 August 2019.
- 11.
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- 12.
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- 13.
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- 14.
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- 15.
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- 16.
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- 17.
‘Senegal’, https://www.far.com.au/africa/senegal/, accessed 9 August 2019.
- 18.
Monica Skaten ‘Ghana’s Oil Industry: Steady Growth in a Challenging Environment’ (Oxford Institute for Energy Studies 2018).
- 19.
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- 20.
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- 21.
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- 22.
Ibid.
- 23.
World Bank, ‘South Africa’, https://data.worldbank.org/indicator, accessed 30 August 2019.
- 24.
Ibid.
- 25.
Department of Energy, South Africa Energy Sector Report (2018), http://www.energy.gov.za/, accessed 30 August 2019.
- 26.
Ibid.
- 27.
Ibid. (n 23).
- 28.
Ibid.
- 29.
Ibid. (n 23).
- 30.
Ibid.
- 31.
‘The Carbon Brief Profile: South Africa’, https://www.carbonbrief.org/the-carbon-brief-profile-south-africa, accessed 30 August 2019.
- 32.
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- 33.
Ibid.
- 34.
Ibid. (n 31).
- 35.
International Energy Agency, Kenya (2019), https://www.iea.org/countries/Kenya/, accessed 30 August 2019.
- 36.
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- 37.
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- 38.
Ibid.
- 39.
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- 40.
Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, Economic Survey Report 2019.
- 41.
the Republic of Kenya, Kenya Vision 2030 (2007).
- 42.
Ibid.
- 43.
Government of Kenya, National Climate Change Action Plan 2018–2022, https://www.kcckp.go.ke/nccap-ii-2018-2022/, accessed 30 August 2019.
- 44.
Ibid.
- 45.
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- 46.
Ibid.
- 47.
Ibid. (n 42).
- 48.
‘Energy Sector Overview’, http://www.onhym.com/en/, accessed 9 August 2019.
- 49.
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- 50.
International Energy Agency, Morocco (2018), https://www.iea.org/countries/Morocco/, accessed 30 August 2019.
- 51.
Ibid.
- 52.
Ibid. (n 48).
- 53.
Neimat Khatib, ‘Country Profile: Morocco 2018’ Renewable Energy Solutions for the Mediterranean & Africa, https://www.res4med.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Country-profile-Marocco-2.pdf, accessed 30 August 2018.
- 54.
Ibid.
- 55.
Ibid. (n 48).
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Ibid.
- 57.
NDC Registry, Morocco Nationally Determined Contribution Under the UNFCCC, https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/NDCStaging/Pages/Search.aspx?k=morocco, accessed 30 August 2019.
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Ibid.
- 59.
Ibid. (n 51).
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Ibid. (n 10).
- 61.
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- 62.
Ibid. (n 23).
- 63.
Ibid. (n 19).
- 64.
Ibid.
- 65.
United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Indices and Indicators: 2018 Statistical Update, http://hdr.undp.org/en/2018-update, accessed 2 September 2019.
- 66.
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- 67.
International Energy Agency, ‘Africa Energy Outlook 2040’, https://www.icafrica.org/en/knowledge-hub/article/africa-energy-outlook-a-focus-on-energy-prospects-in-sub-saharan-africa-263/, pp. 76–79, accessed 2 September 2019.
- 68.
Ibid. (n 2).
- 69.
Juozas Augutis and others ‘Impact of the Renewable Energy Sources on the Energy Security’ Energy Procedia Vol 61 (2014).
- 70.
Ibid. (n 16).
- 71.
Ibid. (n 19).
- 72.
Godfrey Boyle Renewable Energy: Power for a Sustainable Future (3rd edn, Oxford University Press (2012).
- 73.
Philipp Mueller ‘UK Energy Security; Myth and Reality’ The Global Warming Policy Foundation (2014).
- 74.
Ibid. (n 2).
- 75.
Matthew Huxham et al., ‘Understanding the Impact of a Low Carbon Transition on South Africa’ (2019) Climate Policy Initiative (CPI) Energy Finance Report.
- 76.
David Timmons et al., ‘The Economics of Renewable Energy’(2014) Global Development and Environment Institute.
- 77.
Doug Hoffman, ‘Switching to Renewable Energy Is Prohibitively Expensive’, Global Warming (Introducing Issues With Opposing Viewpoints) (Greenhaven Press, 2012).
- 78.
Michael Jakob et al., ‘Development Incentives for Fossil Fuel Subsidy Reform’ (2015) Vol 5 Nature Climate Change
- 79.
Falko Ueckerdt et al., ‘System LCOE: What Are the Costs of Variable Renewables?’ (2013) Vol 63 Energy, 63.
- 80.
Ibid. (n 37).
- 81.
Jackie Midlane, ‘Energy 2019| South Africa’ (Global Legal Insights), https://www.globallegalinsights.com/practice-areas/energy-laws-and-regulations/south-africa, accessed 2 September 2019.
- 82.
Pia Buschmann and Angela Oels, ‘The Overlooked Role Of Discourse in Breaking Carbon Lock-In: The Case of the German Energy Transition’ (2019) Vol 10 WIRES Climate Change
- 83.
Megan Bowman and Stephen Minas, ‘Resilience Through Interlinkage: The Green Climate Fund and Climate Finance Governance’ (2018) Vol 19, Climate Policy.
- 84.
Ibid.
- 85.
Ibid. (n 17).
- 86.
Sanjay Kumar, ‘Green Climate Fund Faces Slew of Criticism’ (2015) Vol 527, Nature.
- 87.
Christophe McGlade and Paul Ekins, ‘The Geographical Distribution Of Fossil Fuels Unused When Limiting Global Warming To 2 °C’ (2015) Vol 517, Nature.
- 88.
Yoichi Kaya and Keiichi Yokobori Environment, Energy, and Economy: Strategies for Sustainability (United Nations University Press 1997).
- 89.
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- 90.
International Energy Agency, ‘Energy Technology Perspectives—Catalysing Energy Technology Transformations’ (2017), https://www.iea.org/etp2017/, accessed 9 August 2019.
- 91.
Ibid.
- 92.
Leigh A Hackett, ‘Commercialisation of CCS What needs to happen?’ (2016) IChemE Energy Centre.
- 93.
International Energy Agency, ‘The Future of Petrochemicals: Towards More Sustainable Plastics and Fertilisers’ (2018), https://www.iea.org/petrochemicals/, accessed 9 August 2019.
- 94.
Ibid.
- 95.
Tao Ren And Martin Patel, ‘Basic Petrochemicals from Natural Gas, Coal and Biomass: Energy Use and CO2 Emissions’ (2009) Vol 53 (9), Resources, Conservation and Recycling.
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Fakhri Hasanova et al., ‘The Impact of International Trade on CO2 Emissions in Oil Exporting Countries: Territory vs Consumption Emissions Accounting’ (2018) Vol 74 Energy Economics.
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Liu Xinying et al., ‘Environmental Impacts of Electric Vehicles in South Africa’ (2012) Vol 108 South Africa Journal of Science.
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- 99.
Nalule VR, Regional Cooperation in the Establishment of Regional Energy Infrastructure. In Energy Poverty and Access Challenges in Sub-Saharan Africa (pp. 143–168) (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan 2019).
- 100.
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, ‘Morocco SEFF’ (2015), https://www.ebrd.com/work-with-us/projects/psd/morocco-seff-morseff.html, accessed 9 September 2019.
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Mat Hudin et al., ‘Renewable Energy Investment in Malaysia: An Integrated Model in Evaluating Public Decision Making Process’ (2017) Vol 5(4) Journal of Clean Energy Technologies.
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Kidunduhu, N. (2021). Energy Transition in Africa: Context, Barriers and Strategies. In: Nalule, V.R. (eds) Energy Transitions and the Future of the African Energy Sector. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56849-8_3
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