Abstract
The quantity and distribution of groundwater resources in Croatia are determined primarily by hydrogeology and climate. The most important aquifers in inland Pannonia region are formed as alluvial deposits of intergranular porosity and of high hydraulic conductivity in the Sava and Drava river valleys. In Croatian karst region, the main groundwater reserves are tied to prevailing highly permeable carbonate rocks. Renewable groundwater reserves in Croatia are estimated to be 22,430 milions m3/year, most of it (85.5% of groundwater on round 48% of the territory) in Dinaric karstic part. This points out to the importance of karstic area when considering groundwater resources in Croatia. The total water withdrawal in Croatia amounts to about 1 billion m3 of water annually, some 40% of it being groundwater withdrawal, mostly for the public water supply. The groundwater reserves are in general not overused. However, most important aquifers are vulnerable, and locally under environmental pressure. Nevertheless, groundwater reserves are still mostly in good condition regarding their quantity and quality.
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Notes
- 1.
Even pure and fractured limestone can support superficial flow if regional factors (e.g., hydrological barriers, hydraulic gradients that are too low) do not favour underground flow. Nevertheless, fully developed underground drainage is characteristic for areas with very pure limestone (those with less than 1% of impurities are abundant in Dinaric karst), with springs at relatively low elevation. At such places, subvertical drainage turns subhorizontal at water level and drains toward springs nearby, even if there is no contact with impermeable rocks (Prelovšek 2010).
- 2.
The most probable theory on the origin of the lake is that it is a karst field depression, where the Holocen sea-level rise influenced the underground flows out of the depression, and changed the former hydraulic relationships. The contemporary lake is a cryptodepression with the lowest point recorded in a funnel-like depression (likely a swallow hole zone during land phase) 61,3 m below sea level. The average lake water level is about 13 m above sea level and it functions as a freshwater lens thick enough to prevent possible seawater intrusions (Ožanić and Rubinić 1995). The present hydrologic regime is allowing yearly pumping that amounts up to 2.3 mil m3 of excellent quality water (average of 72 l/s, but in dry months up to 160 l/s) but eventual water pumping increments must be conducted with great caution and strict control (Ožanić and Rubinić 2001).
- 3.
Groundwater bodies cover 55.867 km2 out of a total of 56.594 km2 of Croatian land area, including 11 larger islands with their own groundwater resources used in public water-supply system, or could be potentially used, in excess of 10 m3/day).
- 4.
Croatian waters (in Croatian: Hrvatske vode) is a legal entity for water management in Republic of Croatia, established by the Water Act. The institution is public, responsible for managing water and public water estate, protective and hydro-ameliorative water structures.
- 5.
Technically not for all of Croatia, as the groundwater quantity is estimated for all the determined groundwater bodies, and they cover 98.7% of Croatia, but the 1.3% of the left-out area consists of small islands with negligible groundwater reserves.
- 6.
The shares of the Pannonian and Dinaric parts are in relation to the total area covered by determined groundwater bodies; it is the main reason why the given shares differ from the usually defined shares of Pannonian (48%) and Dinaric karst area (52%) in the total land area Croatia.
- 7.
The distribution losses in small local waterworks are not known, since there is no metering but they can be assumed to be equal or more to the distribution losses in public water supply systems in Croatia. If we compare the amount of water extracted in Croatia for communal supply (460.8 mil m3 in 2012) to the amount delivered (268.3 mil m3 in 2012) the distribution losses are around 42% (Hvatske vode 2016).
- 8.
Assuming irrigation consumption of 2000 m3 of water per hectare annually taking into account that family farms mostly grow vegetables on irrigated land, on parcels of about 0.5 hectares in size.
- 9.
The analysis of the data on groundwater levels (Vujević and Posavec 2018) has shown that since the 1970’s the groundwater levels have declined in the area of the Zagreb aquifer in average by 1–2 m in its western part, 2–5 m in its central part, and 1–3 m in the eastern part of the aquifer.
- 10.
There are 29 existing hydropower plants (HPP) in the upper part of the river basin, including a series of 8 HPP built on the Sava River in Slovenia. Those are causing significant downstream problems through disruption of sediment flow resulting in river bed incision as well as surface and groundwater level decrease (Schwarz 2016). Several more are planned in Slovenia as well as in Croatia.
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Orešić, D., Čanjevac, I. (2020). Groundwater Resources in Croatia. In: Negm, A., Romanescu, G., Zelenakova, M. (eds) Water Resources Management in Balkan Countries. Springer Water. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22468-4_5
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